Industry and Freshwater
ICC / WBCSD Background document
UN Commission on Sustainable Development
20 April – 1 May 1998

ICC Commission on Environment, 30 January 1998

"The 21^st Century might well be characterized by increasing competition for finite fresh water resources. Continuing today’s unsustainable
practices will tend to increase the number and the severity of future
droughts and shortages... ".

Introduction

Industry currently accounts for approximately 20% of the total fresh water used by mankind. The percentage varies from region to region. As world population increases and living standards rise, there will be increasing competition for the world’s finite fresh water resources. If all sectors of society move towards more sustainable use of water, most future needs could be met. This paper outlines what many creative and innovative companies have already done to reduce water use, to use water more efficiently, and to improve the quality of water discharged by industry. The paper presents a series of case studies. These identify lessons learned and can serve as a benchmark for best practice by industry. Many other examples (22 as of this date) can be found in a report on Industry, Fresh Water and Sustainable Development jointly prepared by UNEP and WBCSD. (this report will be published in the 1^st quarter of 1998)Collectively, industry has technology and management skills which potentially can make a major contribution towards managing the world’s fresh water resources sustainably. Industry is only one stakeholder in this complex issue. It is moreover not even the largest user of fresh water. In partnerships with governments, farmers, and civil society, industry can make major contributions to addressing and solving water problems in the new century.

1 Increasing demand for water
Increasing demands for water are occurring from 4 key areas which in aggregate are exertin g unsustainable pressures both in developed and developing countries:
human needs for safe drinking water and proper sanitation;
agriculture needs for expanded production to meet population growth;
environmental needs to protect ecosystems, endangered species;
biodiversity, watersheds and other unique areas of special interest;
industrial needs to provide more goods and services for a growing population.

1.1 Human needs
The major factor influencing the demand for fresh water is the world’s changing patterns of population growth, distribution, and wealth. The world’s population is expected to increase from 5.3 billion in 1990, to between 8 and 10 billion people in 2050, with 90 % of future population growth occurring in the developing countries. A very large percentage of this growth will occur in megacities with acute water and sanitation problems. The World Bank estimates that over 1 billion individuals lack access to clean water and 2 billion do not have even rudimentary access to basic sanitation today.
Industry has identified a number of areas where it could play an active role, including the research and development of efficient new infrastructure for urban water supply and new technology for the re-use of urban waste water.

1.2 Agriculture needs
Agriculture is the largest water user sector, accounting for over two thirds of current global fresh water use. Agriculture is also the largest polluter of water in most developed and developing countries as a result of pollution from poor land management practices including unwise use of pesticides and fertilizers, inefficiencies in irrigation, unrealistically low subsidized water costs which encourage wasteful practices. In the agricultural sector the issue is often one of "non-point" sources where it is difficult to identify the source and exact discharge points of the pollution. Agro-industry and the trade associations have already initiated many corrective programs. This is an area industry considers to be key for the evolution of new government water policy.
Industry can help by promoting best practice in environmental management, including fertilizer and pesticide usage. In addition, industry research and development in the area of better irrigation technology is strongly supported. However, the issue of economic pricing of water, especially in the agricultural sector, is recognized as a key area for priority government attention.

1.3 Environmental needs
The allocation of water for environmental needs is a growing area of investigation and policy development. The environment requires water of sufficient quality and quantity to maintain a diverse array of ecosystems and biodiversity. Moreover, it is becoming increasingly obvious that the environment is not just a sectoral user of water, but provides a fundamental role in maintaining the quality and supply of the world’s water resource for use by other sectors. One classic example is forested watershed protection. Poorly planned clear-cutting of forests on steep slopes has led to disastrous soil erosion and flooding. The short term economic gains have led to dramatic social and disaster relief costs far outweighing the benefits.
Possible roles for industry, include the support of catchment management networks amongst stakeholders in a watershed to promote effective environmental management of water and land resources. Companies in the natural resource sectors of mining, forest products, paper, and oil and gas extraction have special interest in managing and restoring the lands they use. The chemical and fertilizer sectors also have an important role to play in protecting environmental amenities and life supporting ecosystems. Additionally, the continued education of industry in water management practices is recommended.

1.4 Industry
Currently, industrial use of water accounts for approximately 20% of global fresh water consumption (this figure varies widely from region to region). But, demand for water is growing quickly in industry (along with population and agricultural usage), particularly in rapidly developing countries.
Significant progress has been made by many companies primarily in OECD countries in the area of water conservation. This trend will continue to grow and, in the face of increasing demand from downstream users for a greater share of water, industry must continue to adjust and develop its water management strategies.
Industry has a much larger role to play than just protecting its access to water. Industry can also bring the technological capability to move water, treat water and manage water supplies. The development of water technology and strategies for providing clean drinking water and removing wastes is one area where industry is intimately connected to improving the living conditions of populations in developing countries. Industry has an opportunity to participate in providing sustainable solutions for water management, not only for itself but for its neighbours, local farmers and ecosystems as well.

2 Water Supply
In aggregate terms the world is not running out of fresh water. The world’s natural water cycle is constantly renewing supplies. Large quantities of water are lifted from the seas by evaporation and then precipitated onto land surfaces as ice, snow or rain. Continental precipitation supplies 45,000 cubic kilometres of new fresh water every year – e. g. enough to inundate all of Europe under 2.3 meters of water. Ice and snow melt from mountains to release fresh water to our rivers, streams lakes, and to recharge underground streams and aquifers.
Many arid areas are, however, already suffering from continuous shortages; droughts affect other regions sporadically; aquifers are being drawn down more rapidly than nature replaces water; salt water intrusion makes much fresh water undrinkable; pollution from many sources reduces useable supplies; random climate events like El Nino acerbate drought in some regions and generate excess rain, storms and flooding in others. Even in nations where water has traditionally been abundant, such as England, extensive periods of drought have threatened to disrupt normal water supply recently.
Thus there is evidence that water shortages are occurring more frequently, in more locations, and all sectors of society need to prepare themselves for a new era of recurring fresh water crises. Action taken now could reduce the number of these local and regional crises. Many observers believe that fresh water could be a limiting factor in future development. Sustainable development demands that we use our finite freshwater resources more intelligently and efficiently.
Most use of water is not absolutely consumptive. Instead, it is constantly being recycled by nature. When the farmer irrigates his crops a good portion returns immediately to nearby water sources, and the amount fixed in crops is eventually recycled back to nature. When the factory uses water or an individual takes a bath most of the water eventually returns to nature. Increasingly the issue has become not whether water is recycled but rather how soon, where, and in what condition is the water returned for another user. Along many rivers water is used and reused multiple ti mes before it flows back to the sea.
Finally technology is available to convert saline water into fresh water, albeit still at high cost. Thus like most resources, we are not in danger of running out. But unless water resources are harnessed more sustainably, we shall all have to pay ever higher prices to deliver the desirable commodity – small comfort for the poor unable to pay more for water.

3 Water Quality
Water quality is inextricably intertwined with fresh water usage. The most sensitive water issue for many industry sectors is water quality. While the limitations of the future supply of water for industry is a growing concern, industry is still sometimes perceived by the public as the worst polluter of water. Although there are many serious examples of point source industrial pollution in the world, pollution control regulations and water charges have generally ensured the trend towards industry compliance with ever stringent limitations on discharges to public waters.
The reality is that pollution from agriculture and urban waste water are by far the larger problems - in terms of absolute levels of pollution, the geographical extent of the pollution problem and in the relative difficulty of controlling these non-industrial sources of pollution.
When individuals, farmers or industry use water, they invariably add unwanted substances to the discharge water. Beginning around 1970 public and political forces within most OECD countries began to demand improved water quality. Since that date there has been a virtual revolution in the way society and industry regard water. It began with command and control regulatory "end-of-pipe" retrofit technology at existing industrial facilities. It was followed by massive programs to upgrade existing and install new sewers and public wastewater treatment facilities. These public facilities treated both individual discharges and discharges from smaller and medium sized companies. The revolution continued with discharge permit requirements for new or modernized plant and equipment.
Initially there were acrimonious debates about the level of discharge controls and the timeframes for compliance. Soon everyone learned that pollution prevention, especially when building new facilities, was eminently more cost effective than cleaning up dirty water after the fact. When governments established performance standards rather than specifying technology standards, industry found creative ways to use less water, to recycle or reuse wastewater, to move towards zero discharge or closed loop systems and to find ways to reduce or eliminate the pollution before it contacts the water.

4 Eco-Efficiency and Cleaner Production
As we approach the 21^st Century, water quality for industry means moving towards "Eco-Efficiency and Cleaner Production", concepts championed by the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) and the World Business Council for Sustainable Development. (WBCSD)
Both UNEP and WBCSD are convinced that "eco-efficiency and cleaner production" are crucial elements in both water quality and quantity issues. As industry finds new innovative ways to prevent waste, to produce more with less and to discharge less wastewater, there is an inevitable decrease in water consumption by industry. Each unit of production requires less water, and the water that is returned to the natural cycle is cleaner and more appropriate for reuse. This "eco-efficiency" is an inherent component of sustainable development. WBCSD has developed and been a strong advocate of eco-effici ency, a concept which implies that industry must be concerned not only with economic performance but with ecological performance as well.

5 Case Studies
The following sample cases demonstrate how some industries have contributed to an on-going revolution in water management.

Case 1. Millar Western - A Zero-Effluent Pulp Mill - Canada
The most challenging environmental problem for pulp mills involves polluted effluent discharged into natural water systems. When Millar Western decided to build a new pulp mill at Meadow Lake, Saskatchewan in western Canada, the company faced an unusually difficult situation. The area was blessed with high quality aspen pulpwood, access to power, good transportation and a quality work force. But one piece of the puzzle needed to be found. The Beaver River, the only water source available, had an extremely low flow and in winter the entire river froze. The river was virtually a pristine water body which it was judged could not accept effluents from a pulp factory no matter how clean.
So the company made a strategic decision to try to close the loop and go for zero effluent discharge. Water recycling is extensively practiced in the pulp and paper industry. But the degree to which water systems can be closed is always limited by the build-up of contaminants in the system. The bleached chemi-thermomechanical pulp (BCTMP) used by Millar Western allowed organic extractives and inorganic salts to enter the wastewater at the rate of 200 kilograms per ton of pulp. In order to recycle wastewater, these residues must be removed.
The company chose the evaporation process. Every drop of wastewater is collected and solids removed by sedimentation and floatation. The clarified liquid is then evaporated to produce clean distillate which can be recycled back into mill processes.
The solid residue is then concentrated and burned in a recovery boiler. The inorganic fraction, 84% sodium carbonate, is solidified into ingots and stored at a secure land fill. The company is currently working with research organizations to find ways to convert the salt into caustic soda or peroxide which could then be recycled back into the mill.
Millar Western and its consultant, NLK Consultants Inc., chose the evaporative process in 1992. Just 24 months later the plant came on line and within budget. Four months later the plant was producing high quality pulp at an average rate of 710 tons per day, in excess of design capacity of 680 tons per day. Now five years later, production and quality have never been affected by the zero effluent treatment system. Company officials say that reliability of their treatment system exceeds that of biological control systems and that operating costs are competitive with conventional treatment.
The company takes pride in never having to worry about upgrading their effluent control systems to meet new legislative requirements. As Peter Knorr, Executive Vice President and Chief Operating Officer , says, "It’s kind of hard to beat a zero effluent discharge rate!" Now NLK and Millar Western are exploring modifications to the process to permit its use in kraft pulping and other non-pulp industrial applications.

Lessons Learned
Dedicated management, supported by competent consultants and outstanding staff enabled one company to make a breakthrough and reduce effluents to zero.
Such innovation may give the company a competitive advantage or even create new market opportunities.
The low flow Beaver River remains pristine despite the siting of a major industrial facility.

Contact Person for further information: Janet Millar, Communications Manager - tel. 001 403 486 2444; fax 001 403 489 0512

Case 1a. The Technology Component - Parkson Corporation’s Contribution to the Zero Effluent Mill - CANADA
Before Millar Western recycled its biologically treated wastewater, there was an additional step before the water was reused. The water, up to 3 million gallons per day, is filtered through Parkson’s DynaSand Filter to remove any remaining suspended solids before membrane filtration and evaporation. The DynaSand, originally developed by the Axel Johnson Institute, is uniquely suitable for this application as it is continuously self-cleaning, delivering recycled water without interruption 24 hours per day.

Case 2. Water Management at a Paper Mill - UPM - Kymmene - FINLAND
The previous case dealt with a new pulping mill using a chemi-thermomechanical process. This case deals with an older mill turning chemical (sulphite) pulp into thermomechanical pulp and integrated paper. The Jmsnkoski mill has more than one hundred years experience in making high quality paper. The mill takes its water from the Kankarisvesi lake in central Finland. The water flows from peat bogs and is contaminated with decaying biological matter. Although the incoming water quality is judged satisfactory by Finnish government standards, it must be pre-treated to meet the mill’s demanding production standards.
Discharge water from the mill flows into the Jms river which is a major tributary to Lake Pijnne, the second largest lake in Finland and a major source of drinking water for the Helsinki metropolitan area. In 1980 it was determined that water quality in the upper reaches of the Lake was poor or barely passable. There was no immediate threat to the drinking water supply, but this condition could not be allowed to expand or even continue.
In 1981, the feedstock for the paper mill was changed from chemical to thermomechanical pulp. This enabled the mill to reduce its water consumption by 75%. Then the mill began investing in processes for the efficient removal of suspended solids and a biological wastewater treatment facility. Table 2.1 shows the dramatic improvements both in reduced water usage and in three measures of waste water quality.

Table 2.1 Water consumption and effluent quality at Jmsnkoski

Despite the mill expanding to become the largest in Finland, water consumption declined dramatically. In 1995 the mill used 93% less water for each ton of paper produced compared with 1980 levels. Simultaneously, the quality of the water effluents improved significantly – 96% reduction in suspended solids for each ton produced; 99.5% reduction in BOD (biological oxygen demand), and 95% reduction in phosphorous. These technical results are displayed vividly in Figure 2.1 below which displays improved water quality in Lake Pijnne. By 1996 all segments previously classified poor or only passable had been completely upgraded. The vast majority of the lake now has water designated as excellent or good. Only one small segment has water regarded as "only" satisfactory. UPM-Kymmene has demonstrated that good water management can make a difference.

Lessons Learned

• It is possible to prod uce quality paper profitably and still protect downstream water quality.
• Good water management can reduce water use per unit of product and reduce pollution to very low levels.
• Lake water quality can respond rapidly when pollution levels are reduced.

Contact for further information: Hannu Nilsen, Vice President, Environment - UPM-Kymmene, tel. 00358 20 416 111, fax. 00358 20 416 2219

Case 3. Danfoss A/S - Managing an Underground Aquifer - DENMARK
Danfoss, a manufacturer of hermetic compressors, pumps, valves, motors and other electrical control units has a major manufacturing facility located on a small island, Als in the Baltic Sea. In 1983 the company was routinely withdrawing 2 million cubic meters of fresh water from the sole aquifer supplying the entire island which is home to 50 000 residents. This was well within the limit of 3 million cubic meters authorized by local officials.
In 1983, Danfoss discovered a crack in a settling tank in its wastewater treatment system. The company was concerned that polluted water might permeate down into the fresh water supply. The company repaired the leak immediately but began an extensive investigation of the groundwater and the aquifer. The good news was that the leak had not polluted the aquifer; the bad news was that the level of the aquifer had dropped dangerously low. So low in fact that the danger of salt water intrusion had become a real possibility. Danfoss management recognized that they were the major fresh water user on the entire island and as such they had a responsibility to the 50 000 private citizens who used this common resource.
The company initiated a series of water savings programs and completely revised their wastewater treatment system. All pipes were placed above ground so even the smallest leak could be detected immediately. In 1989 the local authorities reduced the permissible water extraction rate for Danfoss down to 2 million cubic meters. Danfoss, however, had already reduced their use rate to below 1 million cubic meters.
Despite increasing production levels, Danfoss continued to find ways to reduce water consumption even further. By 1994, Danfoss had reduced its water consumption to 0.4 million cubic meters, a reduction of over 80% compared with 1983 levels. During this same period the level of the aquifer rose by 1.7 meters and the threat of salt water intrusion virtually disappeared. The substantial improved freshwater reserves indicates a consumption level that can be sustained indefinitely. Fresh water supply was assured both for the company, its 7 000 employees and their 50 000 neighbours on the island of Als.

Table 3. 2. Initiatives to Reduce Fresh Water Consumption

• the company’s top management gave priority attention to the water situation - including supply, quality, consumption, and reuse
• top management developed a sustainable water policy
• management sought to motivate and involve all employees in good household practices for water
• reviewed all technical installations and processes using fresh water
• modernized the control systems making it possible to save water and reduce effluents
• assured qualit y of recirculation cooling water to enhance cooperation between technical personnel using water and company environmental specialists
  

Lessons Learned
Companies can continue to expand production and remain profitable while reducing fresh water consumption.
Reducing fresh water consumption involves basic housekeeping, management attention, technology innovation and commitment from all employees.
This company reduced water consumption by 80%.

Contact for further information: Lars F. Jrgensen, Danfoss, tel. 0045 7 488 2266; fax. 0045 7 488 5907.

Case 4. Ladish Malting Co. - Linking Industrial Activity to Natural Systems - US

As its name implies, Ladish Malting, a subsidiary of Cargill, located in Spiritwood, North Dakota, USA processes grain into malt, a key ingredient in beer and other alcoholic beverages. This facility uses 1.5 million gallons of water each day in its processes and then discharges most of this water back into nature. However, this water first requires treatment.
Managers were interested in low cost ways to clean up this discharge water. Local employees, working in partnership with local farmers, Ducks Unlimited (an organization dedicated to protecting wildfowl), the US Fish and Wildlife Service, the Boy Scouts and 4-H clubs (an American farm youth organization), developed a unique approach. The idea was to create a wetlands project to benefit waterfowl and other migratory birds using the Central Flyway, a main route connecting Canada through the heartland of the US to warmer climes in the South.
Properly managed, wetlands can serve as natural cleansing agents for water contaminated with excess biological material. Dumped into rivers, these wastewaters use up oxygen and pose a threat to fish. Trickled into wetlands they yield their biological nutrients to the plants occupying the natural system. The water flows slowly through the wetland being cleaned naturally and then enters a five-acre (2.1 hectares) aerated lagoon for final cleansing. The clean water is stored in special holding areas with non-porous clay bottoms and concrete berms. Finally this water provides irrigation for 2400 acres (1000 hectares) of nearby farm land.
It is a classic win-win situation. The company reduces its costs, wildlife gain enhanced habitat, and local farmers obtain low cost irrigation water. The same fresh water is used three times for industrial, environmental and agricultural purposes.
Cargill has announced that they intend to use this model at other plant sites. It is a useful concept for symbiosis between food processing industries, natural habitat enhancement and agricultural uses.

Lessons Learned:

• When wastewater contains only biological materials, natural or man-made wetlands can provide effective pollution removal in ways that are good for the environment and inexpensive
• There are interesting opportunities to reuse some industrial wastewaters for irrigation purposes
• Cooperation among governments, non-governmental organizations and Industry can provide mutual benefits for all

Contact for further information: Joseph P. Botos - Ladish Malting tel. +1 612 742; fax 001 612 742 6678

Case 5. Water Management in a Desert Mining Operation - Rssing Uranium Ltd - NAMIBIA

Minerals, like copper, silver, gold or uranium, are valuable but often difficult to find in commercial quantities. Water is a crucial ingredient in the separation processes by which minerals are extracted from the bulk ore. Then the wet residues must be moved to safe disposal sites. In this case, Rssing, a subsidiary of Rio Tinto, is conducting uranium mining operations in the Namib Desert, an area of low and erratic rainfalls, extreme temperatures with cold nights and hot days and strong seasonal winds.

Rssing had two sources of water:
1. Fresh water from NAMWATER, the public water supplier who pumps water from underground aquifers of the Omaruru and Kuiseb Rivers. It is important to note that NAMWATER also supplies drinking water to the coastal towns of Walvis Bay and Swakopmund less than 70 kilometres west of the mine site.

2. Brackish water from the Khan River immediately adjacent to the mine site.

In 1980 the company used more fresh water than Swakopmund and Walvis Bay combined (over 10 million cubic meters per year). By 1996 the company had reduced its consumption to 2.6 million litres, less than that used by either coastal city. This case describes how Rssing achieved this goal through improved water management and tailings disposal methods.

The company could conserve fresh water on the input side by restricting the use of this high quality water for domestic purposes and limited plant operations while maximizing the use of brackish water or recycled water for all other purposes. One specific example was the total replacement of fresh water used in the rodmill by water recycled from the dam.
On the output side, the company had to address two main losses:

1. Entertainment – the process by which water is trapped in the disposal tailings - historical experience indicated that approximately 150 litres of water are lost for every ton of ore milled

2. Evaporation - in the hyperarid climate of the Namib Desert water from the pond and tailings impoundment area was lost rapidly - every hectare of wetted area could result in a daily loss of up to 72 cubic meters – that’s 72 000 litres

Management was convinced that evaporation was the primary target. In the original tailings deposition configuration there was an evaporation pond of 150 hectares at the centre and 1000 hectares of wetted area around the pond. In 1985 the tailings deposition system was reorganized to reduce the impoundment area to 760 hectares (a 24% decrease in surface area) and the pond to 60 hectares (a 60% decrease). Evaporation rates decreased and more water was available for re-use.
Then in 1988, the company introduced an improved system in which the impoundment area was divided into small deposition segments called paddocks. The liquid from each 40 hectare paddock was drained by a penstock system and excess water shipped to the pond from where it could be recycled to other processes. In 1995 the penstock was upgraded with special decanting pump systems and the pond was eliminated. This increased the recyling rate further with the water going directly back into operations.
The results were startling:
evaporation dropped by 87.5% below 1988 levels (0.29 m³/metric ton in 1988; 0.036 m³/metric ton in 1995)
use of fresh water dropped by over 50% below 1988 levels (0.55 m³/metric ton in 1980; 0.27 m³/metric ton in 1995)
fresh water saved is conservatively estimated at 71 million cubic meters between 1981 and 1995.

The paddock system and the decanting also reduced seepage levels. The company also constructed several cut-off trenches to capture any seepage and recycle it back into operations. Monitoring wells were drilled to record any flows back into the Khan River. The decanting system lowered company costs since the number of pumps was reduced from 60 down to 20.
Over 15 years, the company invested Nambia$53.7 million with cumulative operating costs of Nambia$117.8 million over the same time frame. The company estimates resulting benefits, primarily from reduced water charges, recapture of uranium and acids, and reduced use of pumps, at Nambia$185.4 million –more than enough to cover all capital charges and operating costs.

Lessons Learned
Modification of the waste tailings system and recycling water claimed from this operation enabled the company to reduce its fresh water consumption by over 50% - ensuring that its operations would be sustainable over the lifetime of the mine.
The company program made more fresh water available for urban needs and future economic development in the coastal region of Namibia.
The company investments saved over 71 million cubic litres of scarce fresh water between 1981 and 1995.
The investment and operating costs were totally offset by benefits accruing to the company.

Contact for further information: John R. Tjirare, Senior Metallurgist, Rssing Uranium, tel.00264 64 520 2209, fax. 00264 64 522026
* * * * * * *

General Conclusions and Recommendations

The 21^st Century might well be characterized by increasing competition for finite fresh water resources. Continuing today’s unsustainable practices will tend to increase the number and the severity of future droughts and shortages.

No one sector of society can, acting on its own, eliminate this problem. Industry, which is not the main user of water, has financial, technical and management resources to meet most of its own needs. However, all sectors need to cooperate if society is to avert or minimize adverse effects associated with emerging fresh water shortages.
The elements of a comprehensive water strategy are rather straight forward and apply to all parties They include:
conservation and wise use of the resource base
recycling and reuse whenever feasible and economic
waste treatment to facilitate recycle and reuse options
water basin and water catchment management to allocate scarce resources most effectively
management of underground water and aquifer systems
phasing out of inappropriate subsidies which encourage unwise use of scarce water resources
The sample case studies presented indicate that industry has already begun to manage industrial water use more effectively. Improved waste water treatment facilitates recycle and reuse within companies and by other downstream users. One future task is to continue raising awareness within the business community and encourage others to take action now. The UNEP - WBCSD report, now being prepared, is one vehicle for disseminating important messages about wise use of fresh water. A second task, one shared by industry and UNEP, is disseminating more information about Eco-Efficiency and Cleaner Product ion in general and specifically with fresh water use in mind. A related task is fostering the idea of "eco-efficiency", an idea developed and advocated by WBCSD, which implies doing more with less and finding "win-win" situations that are good for both profits and the environment. Both ICC and WBCSD continue to support actively these important initiatives.
But as this paper makes clear, agricultural is the great user, waster and polluter of water. However, the issue of economic pricing of water, both in agriculture and domestic use, remains primarily a government and public policy issue. Subsidies should be phased out since they encourage waste and prevent better management of finite fresh water resources.
The 1992 Dublin Principle was clear and correct, – "Water has an economic value in all its competing uses and should be recognized as an economic good."
The Comprehensive Assessment of Freshwater Resources for the World, prepared for the Commission for Sustainable Development in 1997 stated, - "Water is an economic good. Its economic values should be given due attention when appropriating scarce water resources among competing uses, without infringing on the basic rights of water service for all people at affordable prices."
ICC and the WBCSD support these statements and urge governments to get on with the task of implementing these sound concepts.

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